Evaluating Arguments

Toulmin’s Model of Arguments

Stephen Toulmin, a 20^th century British philosopher, developed a model for evaluating arguments. This is a simplified version of his model.

The three major elements of Toulmin’s argument model are:

Claim – the statement, position, or idea that the author wants the reader to accept.

            Example: The sales and operation of most SUVs should be banned.

Your claim should be a complete sentence that expresses an arguable (not a factual) statement.

Reason – the reasoning or logical connection between the evidence and the claim. The reason explains why, according to the argument, the claim is true.

            Example: SUVs contribute to global warming.

Remember: Your reason should be an idea, not a specific piece of evidence. You can think of the reason as a generalization of the evidence.

Evidence / data – the facts, examples, authoritative opinions, statistics, etc. that the author presents to support the claim

            Example: Studies show that SUVs emit significant levels of greenhouse gases.

Test your claim, reason, and evidence by inserting them in the following questions and answers.

1. What is the author’s argument?

Answer: Claim because Reason.     

Answer: The sales and operation of most SUVs should be banned because SUVs contribute to global warming.

Your claim should specifically and precisely express the author’s main argument, and your reason should make sense as a “because” clause to your claim.

2. How do we know?

Answer: Evidence

Answer: Studies show that SUVs emit significant levels of greenhouse gases.

Your evidence should make sense as the answer to the question, “How do we know?”

Aristotle’s categories for basic appeals in arguments:

Emotional appeals (also known as pathos) play to the reader’s feelings and values.

            Example: In an argument for health care reform, the writer presents a story about one family suffering under the current system that evokes the reader’s sympathy and sense of fairness.

Ethical appeals (also known as ethos) seek to establish the credibility of the writer as trustworthy.

            Example: The writer cites a source that the reader trusts; the writer gives the reader a sense that complete facts are being presented and/or all sides of an issue are being treated fairly.

Logical appeals (also known as logos) use reasoning and logic to make their points.

            Example: The writer makes strong logical connections between steps of her argument, such as clearly explaining how a cause produces a particular effect. The writer supports her claim with convincing factual evidence.